Aviation kerosene is more than just fuel— it is the result of decades of meticulous engineering solutions and carefully calculated compromises. Why isn’t aviation powered by gasoline, natural gas, or hydrogen? Because jet fuel must remain liquid even at −50 °C at 12 000 meters altitude, not thicken like gasoline, and not ignite too easily.
At the same time, aviation kerosene lubricates fuel system components— during passage through injectors injectors—cools the engine’s hot parts, and delivers reliable, stable thrust regardless of weather. It’s not just fuel—it’s a universal precision instrument for aviation.
But what exactly makes it so special? Why did kerosene become the driving force of aviation, and how is this strategic substance derived from ordinary crude oil? As engineers sought to improve both environmental and technical properties by making fuels cleaner, they encountered a paradox: the purer the fuel became, the more problematic its performance could be in operation. Why does this happen?
In this article, we will explain what makes aviation kerosene a unique product of modern science and engineering—its ideal chemical composition, how it’s made, and why every liter is engineered down to the molecule.
From Crude Oil to Sky: How Aviation Kerosene is Made
To understand just how complex aviation fuel is, it is enough to look at its production process. The final product is a clear, oily liquid, but behind it lies a multi-stage chain of chemical and technological transformations. Everything begins with ordinary crude oil, but transforming it into aviation kerosene is a true art of oil refining.
Step 1: Atmospheric Distillation
The process begins with the distillation of crude oil. It is heated to high temperatures and fed into a distillation column—a large tower where the oil is separated into fractions based on their boiling points. The fraction that boils off between 180 °C and 230 °C is known as the kerosene fraction, which serves as the base for future jet fuel.
However, at this stage, the resulting product—straight-run kerosene—still falls short of the quality standards required for aviation. It contains undesirable impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen compounds, trace metals, and residual gums. Without further purification, this fuel could damage the engine and cause it to fail prematurely.
Step 2: Hydrotreatment (Hydrodesulfurization)
At this stage, the kerosene fraction is purified using technical hydrogen under high pressure (up to 30 atm) and temperature (300–400 °C), with a catalyst.
This process removes harmful and unstable components:
• Sulfur compounds– corrosive and environmentally harmful
• Nitrogen compounds– reduce thermal stability
• Resins and aromatics– affect combustion quality and damage engine materials
Result: clean, chemically stable kerosene suitable for aviation fuel production.
Step 3: Final Additives
In the final stage, specialized additives are blended into the fuel to meet strict aviation safety and performance standards:
• Antioxidants– prevent fuel degradation during storage
• Antistatic agents– reduce risk of static electricity buildup during refueling
• Ice inhibitors– prevent water crystallization at high altitudes
• Biocides and corrosion inhibitors– extend fuel shelf life and protect systems in harsh climates
Aviation Fuel in Kazakhstan: Production, Demand, and Global Best Practice
Aviation fuel is a cornerstone of the aviation industry—its quality, accessibility, and price directly impact flight safety, cost-efficiency, and operational reliability. As domestic and international air travel continues to grow in Kazakhstan, demand for aviation fuel is steadily rising. In 2024, the country produced approximately 744,000 tonnes of aviation fuel. Plans are underway to more than double production to 1.5 million tonnes by 2032, driven by expanded capacities at KazMunayGas refineries (KMG).
Consumption & Supply Challenges
Kazakhstan’s aviation sector actively consumes aviation fuel, and its smooth operation depends entirely on a reliable and uninterrupted fuel supply. As passenger volumes increase, demand for fuel continues to grow. For airlines, it is not just an expense line: up to 36% of a ticket’s cost can be attributed to aviation fuel. Therefore, its availability, price predictability, and supply stability are issues of not just convenience, but of the industry’s competitiveness.
After the Soviet era, airports and airlines took full responsibility for fuel procurement and logistics. However, this decentralized model proved economically and operationally inefficient. Fuel supply is not a core competency for airports or airlines—it requires specialized knowledge, infrastructure, quality control, and inventory management. The absence of a centralized operator has led to fragmented logistics, poor coordination, higher operating costs, and reduced transparency—factors that hinder regional route development.
Global Practices in Aviation Fuel Supply
In international practice, airports do not sell or deliver fuel directly. This is considered unfair competition and contradicts the principles of an open market. Instead, airports provide infrastructure — fuel storage facilities, centralized fueling systems, into-plane fueling trucks, and apron logistics — to specialized companies that professionally manage aviation fuel supply and servicing.
Airlines, in turn, focus on their core business: ensuring safety and quality of transportation, developing route networks, and improving passenger service. Delegating fueling operations to professional operators helps airlines avoid unnecessary costs and risks related to non-core activities.
This approach fosters a competitive environment. Airlines can choose among multiple fuel suppliers, which drives prices down and improves service quality. Airports, for their part, generate revenue from rent, infrastructure usage fees, and royalties (fees for the right to sell fuel), without being directly involved in fueling operations. This allows them to focus on their primary functions.
Examples from International Airports
In major international airports such as Frankfurt, Singapore Changi, London Heathrow, and Dubai International Airport, fueling operations are organized according to international standards. Leading global operators — Shell Aviation, BP Aviation, TotalEnergies Aviation, among others — operate there. These companies own fuel farms and use modern into-plane fueling equipment. All processes are subject to strict quality control and comply with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards.
Frankfurt Airport is a notable example. Operators like Shell and BP have built modern fuel supply complexes certified to ICAO standards. These facilities ensure high quality and fuel safety, along with reliable logistics, making the airport attractive for international carriers. Similar fueling complexes operate at nearly every major international airport, where into-plane refueling is handled by top global companies such as BP Aviation, Shell Aviation, Lukoil Aero, Gazpromneft Aero, Indian Oil Corporation, ADNOC Distribution, TotalEnergies Aviation, and others. Most of these are subsidiaries of vertically integrated oil and petrochemical corporations.
Dubai International Airport offers another strong example. As one of the world’s largest aviation hubs, it showcases an efficient fueling model with multiple independent operators. This system promotes healthy competition, enables high flight turnaround capacity, reduces fuel costs, and enhances service quality. It also minimizes the number of intermediaries between refineries and airlines, lowering fuel prices, reducing air transport costs, and improving logistics efficiency — including for cargo operations.
This division of responsibilities reduces intermediaries between refineries and airlines, cuts operational costs, and helps optimize fuel prices. As a result, not only do carriers benefit, but passengers as well — through more affordable airfare.
Formula-Based Pricing: The Global Standard for Transparency in Aviation Fuel Markets
In an era of globalization and rapidly increasing air traffic, transparency and predictability in aviation fuel pricing have become critically important. This is especially relevant for international airlines operating under high competition and volatile resource prices. The global response to these challenges has been the adoption of a standard mechanism — formula-based pricing — which has earned the trust of market participants due to its objectivity, transparency, and reliance on real market data.
What Is Formula-Based Pricing?
Formula-based pricing is a method by which the price of aviation fuel is calculated using a pre-established formula. This formula is based on a reference quotation determined by leading international price reporting agencies, such as Argus and S&P Global Platts. A differential is then added to this base quotation.
This approach not only reflects actual dynamics of the global market but also ensures fair compensation for suppliers and allows for price adjustment to match the specifics of a local market.
Why Is It Important for the Industry?
Formula-based pricing is more than just a calculation tool. In global practice, it has become a core element of a sustainable and competitive aviation fuel market model, where pricing is formed not behind closed doors, but based on transparent and objective data.
The use of formula-based pricing offers several key advantages to the industry:
• Transparency and trust — Airlines gain a clear understanding of price components: from global benchmarks to operational costs. This fosters trust among market players and eliminates room for price manipulation.
• Reduced price risk — Tied to market indicators, this model eliminates the need to embed extra premiums for volatility. The result is fairer and more predictable end prices.
• Promotion of fair competition — When prices are determined through a clear formula, competition shifts toward service quality, logistical efficiency, and supply reliability. This drives overall improvement across the industry.
• Planning and stability — The formula-based model is especially valuable for carriers operating under tight schedules and long-term contracts. A clear pricing system enables confident planning of budgets, routes, and flight frequencies years in advance.
Ultimately, formula-based pricing transforms the fuel market from an opaque, uncertain zone into a transparent and manageable system — benefitting both suppliers and consumers. That’s why its adoption is a vital part of modernizing aviation infrastructure in any country.
Kazakhstan: A Growth Point — KMG-Aero
In Kazakhstan, the use of formula-based pricing remains more the exception than the rule. To date, the only operator that has implemented this standard is KazMunayGas-Aero LLP (KMG-Aero) — a subsidiary of the national company KazMunayGas JSC (KMG). Holding an 18% share of the commercial aviation fuel market, KMG-Aero is acting as a driver of positive change by applying a formula based on Platts and Argus quotations, complemented by a market-based differential.
This approach provides airlines with a clear and competitive pricing policy, the ability to enter into long-term contracts, and contributes to lower fuel costs by fostering competition between airports and fuel service providers.
What’s Next?
Kazakhstan is a key link in the Eurasian transit network, and the development of modern aviation infrastructure is one of the national priorities outlined by President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev in the context of establishing international air hubs. Achieving this goal requires transparent and competitive market mechanisms, including in the field of aviation fuel supply.
Formula-based pricing is not merely a technical tool, but rather a vital component for the sustainable growth of the aviation sector and the realization of the country’s transit potential. It builds trust among international carriers, lowers pricing barriers, and brings transparency to the aviation fuel market.
Already today, several airports in Kazakhstan have multiple aviation fuel operators competing for airline customers. In the future, new vertically integrated suppliers based on domestic oil companies are expected to enter the market — further strengthening fair competition, improving service quality, and stabilizing fuel prices.
For Kazakhstan, adopting the formula-based pricing model is a step toward globally recognized standards and a strategic move to strengthen the country’s position in the region.
Jet A-1 in Kazakhstan: A New Standard for Aviation Progress
Today, Kazakhstan’s aviation industry primarily relies on Soviet-era fuel grades TS-1 and RT, produced in accordance with GOST 10227-86. Meanwhile, global industry leaders have long adopted the international standard Jet A-1, which complies with ASTM D1655 (USA) and DEF STAN 91-91 (UK). Currently, only about 10 countries continue to use TS-1 and RT, while Jet A-1 has become the default global choice for most airlines.
Transitioning to Jet A-1 is an inevitable and essential step for Kazakhstan’s integration into the global aviation system. Successful implementation will require coordinated decisions by sectoral ministries and gradual infrastructure modernization.
TS-1 vs. Jet A-1: What’s the Difference?
The key difference lies in production technology and fuel quality. Jet A-1 undergoes deep hydroprocessing and includes a specific additive package that ensures stable performance across various climatic conditions. In contrast, TS-1 is based on less-refined straight-run kerosene, which reduces production costs but limits its versatility and international standardization.
Why Kazakhstan Needs Jet A-1
The switch to Jet A-1 is more than just replacing one fuel type with another — it is a strategic transformation of the entire aviation fuel supply chain and ground infrastructure. It positions Kazakhstan for deeper integration into the international aviation community.
The adoption of Jet A-1 will:
• Open Kazakhstan’s aviation marketto global carriers by eliminating technical limitations associated with TS-1.
• Boost the sector’s investment appealthrough alignment with ICAO and IATA fuel standards.
• Enable participation in international climate initiativessuch as CORSIA, where Jet A-1 is the baseline fuel for carbon emissions validation.
• Strengthen Kazakhstan’s status as a modern aviation transit hub, capable of handling any international flights without restrictions.
In this regard, Jet A-1 is not only a marker of technological advancement, but also a platform for sustainable growth, environmental integration, and alignment with global air traffic networks. Without it, Kazakhstan will not be able to implement Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF), increase transit volumes, or participate fully in international aviation programs.
Readiness and Challenges
All three refineries in Kazakhstan under the KazMunayGas group are technically ready to produce Jet A-1 aviation fuel. However, production can only begin following an official decision by the government, which will assess the overall preparedness of the aviation sector and determine the right time to initiate the transition. The shift to Jet A-1 must be phased, taking into account existing infrastructure limitations and potential logistical challenges.
Unlike leading global examples, Kazakhstan’s airport fuel infrastructure is outdated and designed specifically for the use of TS-1 and RT grades. Transitioning to the modern Jet A-1 standard will require significant investments in upgrading storage tank farms, filtration and pumping systems, and refueling vehicles.
In this regard, KazMunayGas, through its subsidiary KMG-Aero, is already implementing investment projects in Aktobe, with plans to launch similar upgrades in Astana, Turkistan, Aktau, and other key cities. These initiatives aim to build and modernize aviation fueling infrastructure to support future fuels such as Jet A-1 and eventually SAF (Sustainable Aviation Fuel). One modern refueling truck has already been purchased, with two more expected by the end of 2025. In parallel, feasibility studies are underway for the construction and upgrade of fueling facilities. The total investment is estimated at around KZT 15 billion, expected to create approximately 140 new jobs.
Kazakhstan and SAF: A Regional Leader in Green Aviation
Kazakhstan is already emerging as a regional leader in sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) initiatives. These efforts align with global climate strategies while creating new economic opportunities for the country. The development of SAF will provide a long-term foundation for environmentally responsible and sustainable growth of the national aviation industry.
New Global Rules: ICAO Mandates
Starting in 2025, the European Union has enforced a mandate requiring a minimum 2% SAF blending in all aviation fuel supplied at EU airports. This policy is part of a broader strategy to reduce the carbon footprint of aviation. The primary penalties apply to producers and suppliers — a fine of €2,700 per missing tonne of SAF.
Airlines are also partially liable: if SAF is available at the airport but not used by the carrier, they face a double penalty equal to twice the cost of one tonne of SAF.
The global aviation sector is moving in the same direction. Starting in 2027, new ICAO sustainability standards will require all countries to either blend SAF into aviation fuel or pay for non-compliance. By 2030, the SAF blending rate must reach at least 4%, and by 2050, grow to 65%. The ultimate goal is to cut CO₂ emissions by at least 10% per flight.
Kazakhstan’s SAF Initiatives
As a signatory to the Paris Agreement, Kazakhstan has adopted a Carbon Neutrality Strategy through 2060. A key component of the strategy is transport decarbonization, and KazMunayGas (KMG) is actively exploring ways to supply the aviation sector with clean, bio-based fuel. Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF), made from biomass or waste, can significantly reduce aviation’s carbon footprint. To this end, Kazakhstan is studying global SAF production practices with the aim of developing a domestic SAF industry compliant with international standards.
According to consulting firm ICF, SAF consumption in Kazakhstan may reach 70,000 tonnes by 2030, growing to 1.4 million tonnes by 2050. Domestic feedstocks, including bioethanol produced in the North Kazakhstan region, offer considerable production potential.
First Steps in SAF Production
In spring 2025, KMGAero, LanzaJet (USA) and KazFoodProducts (Kazakhstan) signed a tripartite agreement to jointly develop a feasibility study for SAF production. This agreement aims to introduce advanced eco-technologies to Kazakhstan and position the country as the first SAF producer in Central Asia.
KMG and its subsidiary KMG-Aero are also evaluating alternative SAF production pathways. They are in discussions with leading global licensors such as Honeywell UOP (USA), Axens (France), and Maire Group (Italy), whose technologies enable modern, scalable SAF production and support the global transition to cleaner aviation fuel.
Readiness and Challenges
Kazakhstan is steadily moving toward sustainable aviation. Yet, turning SAF ambition into industrial reality requires not only technological readiness and international partnerships but also a robust legal and regulatory framework.
A critical step along that path is the introduction of national mandates requiring a minimum share of SAF in total aviation fuel consumption. Such mandates would create regulatory certainty for investors, producers, and carriers.
The transition must be gradual and carefully planned. A logical first step would involve mandating SAF use on international routes, where external climate requirements and carbon pricing already apply. This would minimize internal market disruption, allow logistics testing, and help adapt regulations without imposing immediate pressure across the entire industry.
At the same time, Kazakhstan needs uniform standards for SAF quality, logistics, and certification aligned with international criteria. This would ensure global recognition of Kazakh SAF, simplify export procedures, and enable its unrestricted use by airlines in global alliances.
This SAF initiative is more than a technological endeavor—it is a strategic choice that could reshape the future of Kazakhstan’s aviation industry and align it with global climate goals. Early implementation of national mandates, phased requirements, and pilot programs on international flights are the logical and necessary trajectory that requires cross-ministerial coordination today.
Ultimately, SAF is not just a new type of fuel—it is a symbol of a new era for the aviation industry, the economy, and the nation as a whole. According to KMG’s roadmap, industrial SAF production could begin between 2027 and 2030. But SAF is never used in pure form—it is always blended with Jet A1 kerosene, with the ratio determined by engine type and flight route.
Building a full SAF ecosystem is impossible without a modern Jet A1 infrastructure—covering production, storage, and certified distribution chains. That is why the transition to Jet A1 is not just an intermediate step—it is a strategically necessary foundation. Jet A1 modernization provides the platform for sustainable aviation development, and SAF completes the industry’s transformation into a climate-aligned future.
